Special thanks are also extended to Daniele Perenzoni, Domenico Masuero and Mattia Gasperotti for assistance with the chemical analysis, and Paulo Selleck PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor José Ogliari for assistance with the statistical analysis. “
“In the past few years there has been an increased interest in the production of fermented dairy beverages containing probiotics due to several health claims that have been associated with their consumption (Özer & Kirmaci, 2010). Probiotics

are usually defined as live microorganisms that, when ingested in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host (Vasiljevic & Shah, 2008). Many of these microorganisms have been identified as lactic acid-producing bacteria and are usually consumed in the forms of fermented milks, yogurt or kefir (Saarela et al., 2000 and Zajek and Gorek, 2010). Kefir is a refreshing, naturally carbonated fermented dairy beverage with a slightly acidic taste, yeasty flavour and creamy consistency (Powell, Witthuhn, Todorov, & Dicks, 2007). The traditional production of kefir is initiated by the addition of small (0.3–3.5 cm in diameter), irregularly shaped, yellow–white kefir grains to fresh milk (Garrote

et al., 1997 and Güzel-Seydim et al., 2000). Kefir grains are mostly composed by proteins and polysaccharides and enclose a complex microflora. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts exist in a complex symbiotic relationship and are responsible for alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation, respectively. Since kefir grains are VX-770 research buy able to metabolize lactose, they can be used to ferment cheese whey, Sulfite dehydrogenase a lactose-rich waste of negligible cost (Papapostolou, Bosnea, Koutinas, & Kanellaki, 2008). Cheese whey, the yellow–green liquid remaining after the precipitation and removal

of milk casein during cheese making, has been considered as one of the major problems in the dairy industry. It represents an important environmental pollution, exhibiting a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) equal to the maximum allowable limits of 50,000 mg/l and chemical oxygen demand (COD) equal to the maximum allowable limits of 80,000 mg/l (Siso, 1996). Furthermore, deproteinised cheese whey or whey permeate, the liquid fraction obtained through the ultrafiltration or diafiltration of raw cheese whey, account for more than 70% of total whey solids and is mostly responsible for the whey polluting load. This liquid therefore generates disposal problems, in terms of volumes produced and polluting load, almost equal to the disposal of raw whey (Guimarães, Teixeira, & Domingues, 2010). In recent years, considerable efforts have been undertaken to find new ways of using cheese whey and reduce environmental pollution.