The graphitic carbon contents of the GHCS particles are estimated to be approximately 58% compared to the known standard [12]. Since the graphitic nature of the carbon is closely related with its electrical conductivity, GHCS was utilized as a carbon support to prepare a sulfur/carbon nano-composite electrode. The high graphitic nature of GHCS facilitates a fast electron transport to the reaction site where both sulfur and Li2S are electrically insulating. The nano-composite was prepared by heating the homogeneous mixture of sulfur and GHCS to 155°C for 6 h in vacuum oven to let the sulfur melt smear into the inner part of hollow carbon

[4]. Figure  4a,b shows that the morphology of the sulfur/carbon composite is nearly identical with the initial hollow carbon sphere, and the bulk sulfur particles were not observed from the SEM measurement, which indicates that sulfur imbibed into the hollow carbon sphere. The XRD pattern (Figure  AZD1480 4c) of the nano-composite shows the absence of the initial sulfur Luminespib order pattern, which implies that the sulfur may exist in an amorphous phase after the impregnation. The presence of sulfur in the composite was verified by the EDX line profiling shown in Figure  5, where sulfur is seen as a separate inner layer located inside the carbon nano-shell. From the TGA analysis (Figure  4d), the sulfur contents in the nano-composite

are estimated to be about Meloxicam 60%, consistent with the targeted composition. It is noteworthy that the initial amount of sulfur in the composite should be determined considering the volume expansion of the active material (S8 to Li2S) on the electrode upon lithiation [8]. The encapsulation of sulfur within the carbon shell also has a beneficial effect on suppressing the shuttle reaction by confining soluble long-chain polysulfides (Li2S8 and Li2S6) inside the carbon sphere. From Figure  6a, the electrochemical cycling of the nano-composite cathode shows the initial discharge capacity of 1,300 mAh g−1 at C/10, keeping at 790 mAh g−1 (0.5 C) even after 100 cycles.

In Figure  6b, the comparison of discharge–charge curves upon cycling indicates that capacity loss during the discharge occurs mainly due to the difficulties in converting Li2S2 to Li2S in a solid state, as the plateau near 2.05 V shortens, and the overpotential remains unchanged as the cycle proceeds. Figure  7 shows the electrochemical performance of sulfur/GHCS cathode in high current rates. The discharge capacity even at a high rate at 3 C is observed to be 425 mAh g−1, which is five times Fosbretabulin larger than the value (81 mAh g−1) from the nano-composite cathode by simple ball milling of sulfur and carbon black [9], although they have similar initial discharge capacities at low rate of C/10. The good electrical conductivity of the graphitic wall of GHCS promotes an easy transport of electrons to the sulfur located inside the carbon shell (Figure  7b).