This may suggest that while high levels of FoxP3 expression are required to prevent Th2 differentiation, a reduced level of FoxP3 expression is still sufficient to prevent the emergence of Th1 and potentially Th17 responses. Indeed, mature Tregs

in which FoxP3 expression has been ablated (due to an induced cre-mediated deletion of a floxed FoxP3 allele) develop a capacity to produce considerable amounts of IL-2, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IFN-γ and IL-17 [36]. Furthermore, upon transfer to lymphopenic hosts, Tregs in which FoxP3 had been deleted failed to show suppressive function, but rather contributed to inflammation and predominated among tissue infiltrating lymphocytes. Any scientific readout is only as robust as the assay used to achieve it, and the assays used to measure suppressive potential in vitro and in vivo have different strengths and weaknesses. Neratinib in vitro This must be borne in mind because, like many biological phenomena, Treg activity in vivo cannot always be predicted accurately from their behaviour in vitro and vice versa [37–39]. The techniques used to interrogate Treg activity Selleckchem beta-catenin inhibitor have changed over time, reflecting our changing understanding of how Tregs function. The initial identification of the role of Tregs in preventing autoimmunity came from observations of autoimmune pathology in mice lacking CD25+ T cells [13]. Subsequently, assaying the capacity of CD25+

Tregs to suppress the proliferation of their CD25– counterparts in vitro became the gold standard measurement of suppressive potential (see below [40]) and antibody-mediated depletion of CD25+ T cells in vivo was adopted as an imperfect but practical strategy to assess the role Dapagliflozin of Tregs in models of infection, allergy and autoimmunity [41–44]. These in vitro and in vivo experiments identified many of the suppressive pathways utilized by Tregs– IL-2 deprivation [40], expression of CTLA-4 and glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor-related protein

(GITR) [45,46], cell contact-dependent suppression [40], production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10, TGF-β and IL-35 [31,47–51] and the expression of enzymes promoting tryptophan catabolism and adenosine production [52–54]. Throughout this time the role of Tregs was seen primarily as preventing the activation and differentiation of autoreactive T cells and the main arena for suppressive activity was considered to be the draining lymph node during naive T cell priming [39,55,56]. Their potential to modulate ongoing responses, or to display suppressive activity at sites of inflammation, was harder to address using such assays, although promising findings have been reported [57–59]. On this point, it is important to remember that Tregs can have controlling effects on inflammation through actions on a range of immune cell populations, not simply T cells.