14, 2.05, and 1.09 per 100 000 persons, respectively. DAPT in vitro The median age of UC was 38, and that of CD was 25. Terminal ileum involvement only (L1), isolated colonic disease (L2), and ileocolonic disease (L3) were reported in 24%, 6%, and 71% of patients with CD, respectively. Twenty-four percent of patients had coexisting upper gastrointestinal disease (L4). Inflammatory (B1), stricturing (B2), and penetrating (B3) behavior were seen in 65%, 24%, and 12% of CD patients, respectively. Fifty-nine percent of CD and 26% of UC patients

had extra-intestinal manifestations. This is the first prospective, population-based IBD epidemiological study in a developed region of China. The incidence of IBD is similar to that in Japan and Hong Kong but lower than that in South Korea and Western countries. “
“We read with interest the reviews by Ghouri et al.1 and Martinez et al.2 Ghouri et al. analyzed the association of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and concluded B-Raf cancer that although a diagnosis of NAFLD should prompt diabetes screening, it is insufficient for considering patients to be at high risk for CVD. Martinez et al. evaluated noninvasive methods for assessing liver fibrosis and recommended that those tests with the highest diagnostic accuracy be validated against

liver biopsy to facilitate their implementation in clinical practice. We meta-analyzed prospective data regarding the natural history of NAFLD and studies assessing the diagnostic accuracy of noninvasive methods for liver disease severity against liver biopsy in NAFLD, and we reached the following conclusions3: 1 The two NAFLD histological Methamphetamine subtypes, simple steatosis (SS) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), have different risks of liver-related complications: SS progresses to cirrhosis in less than 5% of cases; NASH progresses to cirrhosis in 10% to 15% of cases over 10 years and in 25% to 30% of cases in the presence of advanced fibrosis.3 According to our analysis, a diagnosis of NAFLD should prompt a thorough three-focus assessment of cardiovascular, metabolic, and liver-related risks

(Table 1).4 Liver-related risk assessment remains problematic because it requires liver histology. Three noninvasive methods have been extensively validated: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-detected cytokeratin 18 fragments (9 studies enrolling 856 participants) for the detection of NASH and the NAFLD fibrosis score (13 studies enrolling 3064 participants) and FibroScan (6 studies enrolling 563 participants) for the detection of advanced fibrosis. We believe that these methods should be promptly implemented in diagnostic algorithms to select patients for liver biopsy in routine clinical practice while we continue to search for the ideal noninvasive marker. Giovanni Musso M.D.*, Roberto Gambino Ph.D.†, Maurizio Cassader Ph.D.

oceanica and E. huxleyi occurred only ~291 Kya, the lack of morpho-species segregation by a genetic marker may result from incomplete and differential lineage sorting (i.e., the coalescence point of the given gene predates the speciation event; Maddison and Knowles 2006). However, substitution rates were broadly equivalent between plastidial and mitochondrial gene markers in our data set (Table 1), and thus lineage sorting cannot by itself explain why different organelles present different patterns.

Introgression of plastidial genes may be a better explanation. Coccolithophores have a haplo-diplontic sexual life cycle (Billard and Inouye 2004) and the pattern recorded for plastidial markers could reflect past, or even potentially ongoing, hybridization of closely related sublineages of these morpho-species. Introgression of plastid genes is well-documented in plants learn more (e.g. Tsitrone et al. 2003). In many Roscovitine concentration unicellular algae, the plastids from both gametes are present in the newly formed zygote, but the plastid from one mating type typically quickly degenerates (Miyamura 2010). Even in the chlorophyte Chlamydomonas, where the plastids from the two gametes fuse, an unknown mechanism leads to uniparental inheritance of plastid DNA (Birky 2008). Although the mode of plastid transmission in the sexual cycle of haptophytes is not known, introgression of plastid genes between recently diverged species remains

a possibility. On the other hand, the

reciprocal monophyly between G. oceanica and E. huxleyi lineages observed in all mitochondrial gene-based phylogenies suggests a mono-parental and uni-directional transmission of this organelle in haptophytes. Transmission of mitochondria in multicellular Atorvastatin eukaryotes is typically mono-parental implying that the genealogical history of mitochondrial DNA can be appropriately represented by a unique tree (Avise 2000). Mono-parental mitochondrial transmission has been demonstrated in the green microalga Chlamydomonas (Aoyama et al. 2006) and in the brown macroalgal stramenopile Scytosiphon lomentaria (Kato et al. 2006), but no experimental data exists for coccolithophores or other haptophytes. Overall, the exploration of nuclear, chloroplastic, and mitochondrial markers presented here highlights the extreme relatedness between G. oceanica and E. huxleyi, that can only be clearly separated using mitochondrial barcodes. This confirms the paleontological data that indicate a relatively recent divergence between these taxa. In addition, Gephyrocapsa and Emiliania have a strikingly similar life cycle, consisting of a nonmotile placolith-bearing phase (“C-cells”), a motile phase that bears nonmineralized organic scales (“S-cells”), and noncalcified coccoid or amoeboid cells (“N-cells”). The only morphological character that reliably separates the two genera is the loss of calcareous bridge formation in Emiliania coccoliths.

17 Interestingly,

among those differentially expressed epigenetic LDE225 nmr regulators, a group of SET-domain-containing histone lysine methyltransferases were frequently up-regulated in HCC samples and suggested the significance of histone methylation changes in liver carcinogenesis. The prototype histone methyltransferase, SUV39H1, responsible for global H3K9 trimethylation, is one of the most significantly up-regulated histone modifiers in HCC. Up-regulation of SUV39H1 mRNA was detected in 56.2% of HCC samples and was significantly associated with increased HCC proliferation and the presence of venous invasion. Consistently, we showed that ectopic expression of SUV39H1 enhanced the colony-forming ability of HCC cells and the migratory ability of ubiquitin-Proteasome degradation the immortalized liver cell line. SUV39H1 knockdown in HCC cells substantially suppressed proliferation and colony formation in both adherent and nonadherent conditions, as well as remarkably reduced HCC cell-migratory ability. The oncogenic property of SUV39H1 was further confirmed in vivo by SC injection and orthotopic implantation models. Knockdown of SUV39H1 dramatically suppressed HCC cell tumorigenicity as well as markedly inhibited pulmonary and lymph node metastasis of HCC cells from orthotopically implanted livers. These findings

evidently demonstrated the importance of SUV39H1 in HCC pathogenesis. In this study, we found that SUV39H1-knockdown HCC cells resembled senescence morphology, along with the enhancement of senescence-associated β-Gal activity. Consistent with our study, knockdown of SUV39H1 substantially inhibited cell growth through telomere shortening and senescence induction in a prostate cancer cell model.24,25 These observations

suggested the potential induction of DNA damage response as the consequence of telomere shortening and instability after SUV39H1 knockdown in HCC cells. In colorectal cancer, SUV39H1 mRNA level was significantly elevated Paclitaxel cost and associated with the expression of the DNA methyltransferase, DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1), suggesting a potential collaboration between SUV39H1 and DNMT1 on repressing gene expression.26 Previous reports also showed that SUV39H1 contributed to the transcriptional silencing of tumor-suppressor genes, such as p15 and E-cadherin in acute myeloid leukemia27 and p15 in pancreatic cancer.28 Based on the above-described reports and the function of SUV39H1 on establishing repressive H3K9me3 mark, SUV39H1 up-regulation may be important for telomere maintenance, epigenetic silencing of important tumor-suppressor genes, or senescence evasion during the course of hepatocarcinogenesis. In addition to histone methylation, miRNA deregulation is also frequently observed in human cancers, including HCC.

8 ± 4.9 vs 0.7 ± 0.7 cm × min/30 min). Intraduodenal

pH below 4.0 was correlated with the severity of dull pain in the stomach (R2 = 0.342, P = 0.044). Conclusion:  The newly designed intraduodenal pH monitoring by using catheterless radiotelemetry system is useful to examine the relationship between duodenal acidity and upper gastrointestinal symptoms. “
“Impaired splanchnic hemodynamics are well-documented phenomena in cirrhosis. However, comprehensive hemodynamic features from the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) to the superior mesenteric vein (SMV) via intestinal capillaries have not been studied. The aim was to examine splanchnic hemodynamics and their relationship with learn more clinical presentations. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound was performed for both the SMA and SMV under

fasting conditions and postprandially following ingestion of a liquid diet. The microbubble traveling time (MTT) was determined as the difference between the contrast onset in the SMA and SMV, indicating the time required for microbubble transit through the splanchnic circulation. There were 192 subjects for fasting conditions (81 cirrhosis, 72 chronic hepatitis, 39 healthy controls), and 74/192 for postprandial conditions (44 cirrhosis, 11 chronic hepatitis, 19 healthy controls). The MTT (fasting; postprandial) was significantly longer in cirrhosis (7.7 ± 2.9 s; 7.0 ± 0.3 s) than in controls (5.4 ± 2.3 s, https://www.selleckchem.com/products/gsk126.html P < 0.001; 3.9 ± 0.9 s, P < 0.001) and chronic hepatitis (6.3 ± 2.5 from s, P = 0.007; 5.1 ± 1.4 s, P = 0.013). The MTT ratio (postprandial/fasting) showed disease-related changes: 0.75 ± 0.20 in controls, 0.78 ± 0.15 in chronic hepatitis, and 1.00 ± 0.28 in cirrhosis (P = 0.003, vs. controls; P = 0.036, vs. chronic

hepatitis). The real-time observation of traveling microbubble on the sonogram revealed a prolonged transit with a weak postprandial response in the intestinal circulation, suggesting better understanding of underlying pathophysiology of splanchnic hemodynamics in chronic liver disease. “
“The most common inborn error of bile acid metabolism is 3β-hydroxy-Δ5-C27-steroid oxidoreductase (3β-HSD) deficiency, a disorder that usually presents in early childhood with hepatic dysfunction. Timely diagnosis of this disorder is crucial because it can be effectively treated with primary bile acid replacement. Here we describe a 24-year-old woman from Iran with cirrhosis of unknown etiology. Her sister and a first cousin died of cirrhosis (ages 19 and 6 years) and another 32-year-old first cousin had a self-limited liver disorder in childhood that resolved at age 9 years. The family history suggested that the affected family members were homozygous for a mutant allele inherited identical-by-descent. A genome-wide analysis of 2.4 million single nucleotide polymorphisms was performed to identify regions of homozygosity that were present in the proband and the 32-year-old first cousin, but not in a healthy relative.

10, 11 CHO oxidation = (4.585 × VCO2) − (3.226 × VO2). The CO2 and O2 volume data from the metabolic chamber test were used in the calculation. Energy expenditure was calculated as before.12 Stable

CAV1 knockdown AML12 cell lines were developed using SHVRS MISSION short hairpin RNA (shRNA) Lentiviral Particles (Sigma Mission shRNA set) against mouse caveolin-1 following manufacturer protocols. Two of the five different lentiviral particles with shRNA targeting different sequences of mRNA codifying for CAV1 were able to knockdown CAV1 www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0332991.html to around 90% of the CAV1 expression shown by the WT AML12 hepatocytes. These stable CAV1-deficient AML12 hepatocytes were termed CAV1-kd#2 and CAV1-kd#4, respectively. Cells were selected using puromycin (1 μg/mL) and pooled populations were used NVP-AUY922 for

experiments. WT AML12 hepatocytes were infected with lentiviral particles coding for a scrambled shRNA. Glycolytic rate was measured using the Seahorse XF24 analyzer. Cells were seeded into Seahorse V7 plates at 40,000 cells/well and 24 hours later cells were incubated in either high glucose media (25 mM glucose) or low glucose/oleate media (10 mM glucose, 100 μM oleate) for a further 24 hours. Cells were then washed twice in assay running media (unbuffered Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium [DMEM] with 5 mM glucose) before being incubated in assay running media in a non-CO2 incubator at 37°C for 60 minutes. Basal extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), a proxy measure of glycolysis was then measured using the Seahorse XF analyzer over three measurement periods, each comprised of a 3-minute mix, 2-minute wait, and 3-minute measure cycles. To determine the effect of impaired oxidative

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production on ECAR, oligomycin was injected into the system at a final Alectinib in vitro concentration of 1 μM. ECAR was then determined, again over three measurement periods, each comprised of a 3-minute mix, 2-minute wait, and 3-minute measure cycles. At the conclusion of the assay the assay media was removed and the Seahorse plate and cells were immediately frozen at −80°C for 24 hours. Plates were then thawed and the cell number in each well was determined using the CyQuant kit (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. ECAR values were then normalized to cell number, expressed as a ratio of 50,000 cells. Statistical significance was assessed using Student’s t test or analysis of variance (ANOVA) II in combination with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test unless otherwise indicated. Significance is indicated as (asterisks or another symbol) *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. To examine the apparent inconsistency in liver regeneration between genetic backgrounds we generated and analyzed a third CAV1−/− mouse strain on a pure BalbC genetic background (Balb/CCAV1) (see Materials and Methods).

Associations with adult ulcerative colitis and biliary/hepatic disease have been described. New insights into the immune response and subsequent pathogenesis associated with infection have also been LDE225 cost published. Genomic advances include description of new and unique species and the complete genome description for both Helicobacter felis and Helicobacter suis. Molecular studies have also elucidated the mechanism of action of some functional components of these organisms. Helicobacter species have now been detected in 142 vertebrate species, including animals from every continent and all four nonfish vertebrate taxonomic

classes [1]. Helicobacter colonization has been confirmed for the first time in pancake tortoise, Atlantic spotted dolphins, and brushtail possums along with the more traditional hosts whose repertoire of associated Helicobacter species has been expanded. The Helicobacteraceae family has also been expanded through the description

of Helicobacter magdeburgensis. Stacy and Wellehan [2] reported the identification of a potentially new Helicobacter species in a pancake tortoise (Malacochersus tornieri) diagnosed with septicemia. Spiral-shaped organisms were detected in pathological lesions with partial 16S rDNA sequencing, indicating these were novel Helicobacter. Helicobacter cetorum in stomach and duodenal ampulla in Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis) was detected NVP-BGJ398 using histology and molecular analyses [3]. Novel Helicobacter organisms were also identified in the gastrointestinal tract of brushtail possums [4]. A study performed with Italian beagle dogs described the colocalization of Helicobacter felis and Helicobacter bizzozeronii GBA3 in the fundic mucosa of the stomach. H. bizzozeronii was found in the superficial and the basal portions of the fundic glands, whereas

H. felis was only detected in the superficial portions of the glands. Helicobacters were also located free in the cytoplasm or within lysosomes of parietal cells. Additionally, intracytoplasmic Helicobacters were observed in macrophages in the lamina propria [5]. Another study investigated the spatial distribution of Helicobacter species in the GI tract and hepatobiliary system of cats. PCR-based analyses were used to compare Helicobacter spp. presence in fresh and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues. Helicobacter spp. DNA was detectable in the pancreas, liver, stomach, and duodenum in fresh tissue samples but only in the stomach in FFPE samples. Probably, the most exciting aspect of the study was the detection of Helicobacter spp. DNA in the pancreas, raising the question of how Helicobacter gained access to this organ that traditionally is considered to be sterile [6].

We review the current geographic, ecological and phylogenetic distributions Birinapant mw of sexually reproducing polyploid taxa before focusing more specifically on what factors drive polyploid formation and establishment. In summary, (1) polyploidy is phylogenetically restricted in both

amphibians and fishes, although entire fish, but not amphibian, lineages are derived from polyploid ancestors. (2) Although mechanisms such as polyspermy are feasible, polyploid formation appears to occur principally through unreduced gamete formation, which can be experimentally induced by temperature or pressure shock in both groups. (3) External reproduction and fertilization in primarily temperate freshwater environments potentially exposes zygotes to temperature stress, which can promote increased production of unreduced gametes. (4) Large numbers of gametes and group breeding in relatively confined areas could increase the probability of compatible gamete combinations in both groups. (5) Both fish and amphibians have a propensity to form reproductively successful hybrids; although the relative

frequency of autopolyploidy versus allopolyploidy is difficult to ascertain, multiple origins involving hybridization have been confirmed for a number of species in both groups. (6) Problems with establishment of polyploid lineages associated with minority cytotype exclusion could be overcome in amphibians via assortative mating by acoustic recognition of the same ploidy level, but less attention has been given to chemical or acoustic mechanisms that might operate Selleck IWR1 in fish. (7) There is no strong evidence that polyploid fish or amphibians currently exist in more extreme environments than their diploid

progenitors or have broader ecological ranges. (8) Although pathogens could play a role in the relative fitness of polyploid species, particularly given duplication of genes involved in immunity, this remains an understudied field in both fish and Ketotifen amphibians. (9) As in plants, many duplicate copies of genes are retained for long periods of time, indicative of selective maintenance of the duplicate copies, but we find no physiological or other reasons that could explain an advantage for allelic or genetic complexity. (10) Extant polyploid species do not appear to be more or less prone to extinction than related diploids in either group. We conclude that, while polyploid fish and amphibians share a number of attributes facilitating polyploidy, clear drivers of genome duplication do not emerge from the comparison. The lack of a clear association of sexually reproducing polyploids with range expansion, harsh environments, or risk of extinction could suggest that stronger correlations in plants may be driven by shifts in mating system more than ploidy.

1,2 Transmural drainage was originally performed by blind puncture at the site of maximum bulge on the gastric or duodenal wall followed by dilatation of the punctured tract and insertion of single or multiple stents. Bleeding and perforation were significant complications. However, the evolution of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has improved the safety profile of endoscopic transmural drainage. It has also extended the indications to include pancreatic abscess, organized liquefied necrosis, and non-bulging PFC.1 The presence of necrotic debris in the PFC necessitates a more aggressive approach that involves irrigation using a nasocystic catheter or a direct endoscopic necrosectomy.1

Treating PFC by the transmural method raises some important questions: (i) how long should the transmural stents be kept in?; (ii) what is the impact of concomitant pancreatic duct disruption on clinical outcome; and (iii) whether the accompanying pancreatic duct disruption should be bridged using a pancreatic stent. It has been suggested that stent retrieval should be performed after resolution

of the collection, based on the concerns that stent occlusion might lead to recurrence, and the stent might act as a foreign body and lead to infectious complications.3 However, it has been found that early stent retrieval leads to recurrence of the PFC requiring further intervention in 10% to 30% of patients.3 These recurrences usually occur during the first year after treatment.3 To reduce this higher frequency of recurrence, it has been suggested that transmural stents should be left in for a longer time. Placing transmural stents for longer duration is Anidulafungin (LY303366) selleckchem associated with better outcome and lower recurrence.3,4 A proposed mechanism is that stents may keep the fistula between the PFC and the digestive tract patent, thereby preventing recurrence, especially in cases of pancreatic duct rupture.3,4 Studies have shown that pancreatic duct disruption exists in 40–90% of patients with PFC.5,6 Further, recurrence rates are higher in patients

with chronic pancreatitis compared to acute pancreatitis because of persistence of residual ductal abnormalities in the former5,6 A randomized controlled study compared the outcome of leaving transmural stents in situ with that of patients in whom transmural stents were retrieved after resolution of PFC.3 The transmural drainage was done with 7 Fr and 10 Fr stents. Five of 13 patients in the stent retrieval group had recurrence of the same PFC that required treatment. In the stent maintenance group, there was no recurrence in any of the 15 patients. The majority of patients with recurrence after stent retrieval had pancreatic duct disruption. The authors suggest that long-term transmural stent placement should be used in patients with complete main pancreatic duct (MPD) rupture or a communicating PFC in the setting of chronic pancreatitis.

1987) and pigments (Bird et al. 1982, Smit et al. 1996, Naldi and Wheeler 1999). In addition, the common target amino acids,

methionine, lysine, glutamic U0126 mw acid, and glutamine have different functions in the cells, and may therefore respond differentially to culture manipulations (Taylor et al. 2006). Notably, the relationship between internal nitrogen content and the quantity and quality of amino acids has not been elucidated or related to the targeted production of amino acids in Ulva spp. Therefore, this study aimed to manipulate internal nitrogen content in outdoor cultures by manipulating the supply of nitrogen to examine the interactions among amino acid quantity, quality, and productivity in the green seaweed U. ohnoi M. Hiraoka & S. Shimada. The overall goal was to characterize, for the first time, the nitrogen states of U. ohnoi in intensive cultivation. Firstly, the

effect of stocking density on internal nitrogen content was tested across a broad range of water renewals and related to growth rate. Nitrogen was then supplied in a unique Erlotinib in vitro two-way assessment by manipulating water nitrogen concentration and water renewals to assess the quantitative changes in amino acids with internal nitrogen content and growth rate. These two sets of data were then used to create a conceptual relationship between internal nitrogen content, growth rates, and amino acids. The green seaweed U. ohnoi M. Hiraoka & S. Shimada (commonly known as sea lettuce) was collected from an aquaculture facility in Guthalungra, Queensland, Australia (19°55′ 27″ S, 147°50′ 37″ E) and domesticated at the Marine and Aquaculture Research Facilities Unit (MARFU) at James Cook University for >12 months prior to experiments. Both culture experiments were run in outdoor greenhouses in the austral winter (photoperiod; 12.5:11.5 light:dark) and used the same culture materials: individual 4 L opaque containers (surface area = 0.03 m2, height = 170 mm),

with a constant supply of air to tumble the biomass, which was situated inside a water bath to maintain temperature control. selleck inhibitor However, the source water varied between the two experiments (see below). Stocking density is a critical feature of intensive cultivation as it directly affects light availability, which in turn influences the growth rate of the culture. Additionally, the rate of nitrogen flux (water nitrogen concentration (μM) × water renewal rate (L · h−1) culture volume (L−1)) may influence both internal nitrogen (hereafter referred to as internal N) content and growth rate. To determine the effect of stocking density and nitrogen flux (hereafter referred to as N flux) on the internal N content and growth rate of U. ohnoi, cultures were set at two stocking densities (1 g · L−1 and 4 g · L−1, fresh weight) with 15 water renewal rates (ranging from ≈4% h−1 to ≈1115% h−1) with a nitrate-N concentration of 47.82 ± 2.67 μM, creating nitrogen fluxes ranging from ≈2 μM · h−1 to ≈560 μM · h−1.

1987) and pigments (Bird et al. 1982, Smit et al. 1996, Naldi and Wheeler 1999). In addition, the common target amino acids,

methionine, lysine, glutamic MEK inhibitor acid, and glutamine have different functions in the cells, and may therefore respond differentially to culture manipulations (Taylor et al. 2006). Notably, the relationship between internal nitrogen content and the quantity and quality of amino acids has not been elucidated or related to the targeted production of amino acids in Ulva spp. Therefore, this study aimed to manipulate internal nitrogen content in outdoor cultures by manipulating the supply of nitrogen to examine the interactions among amino acid quantity, quality, and productivity in the green seaweed U. ohnoi M. Hiraoka & S. Shimada. The overall goal was to characterize, for the first time, the nitrogen states of U. ohnoi in intensive cultivation. Firstly, the

effect of stocking density on internal nitrogen content was tested across a broad range of water renewals and related to growth rate. Nitrogen was then supplied in a unique Erlotinib two-way assessment by manipulating water nitrogen concentration and water renewals to assess the quantitative changes in amino acids with internal nitrogen content and growth rate. These two sets of data were then used to create a conceptual relationship between internal nitrogen content, growth rates, and amino acids. The green seaweed U. ohnoi M. Hiraoka & S. Shimada (commonly known as sea lettuce) was collected from an aquaculture facility in Guthalungra, Queensland, Australia (19°55′ 27″ S, 147°50′ 37″ E) and domesticated at the Marine and Aquaculture Research Facilities Unit (MARFU) at James Cook University for >12 months prior to experiments. Both culture experiments were run in outdoor greenhouses in the austral winter (photoperiod; 12.5:11.5 light:dark) and used the same culture materials: individual 4 L opaque containers (surface area = 0.03 m2, height = 170 mm),

with a constant supply of air to tumble the biomass, which was situated inside a water bath to maintain temperature control. learn more However, the source water varied between the two experiments (see below). Stocking density is a critical feature of intensive cultivation as it directly affects light availability, which in turn influences the growth rate of the culture. Additionally, the rate of nitrogen flux (water nitrogen concentration (μM) × water renewal rate (L · h−1) culture volume (L−1)) may influence both internal nitrogen (hereafter referred to as internal N) content and growth rate. To determine the effect of stocking density and nitrogen flux (hereafter referred to as N flux) on the internal N content and growth rate of U. ohnoi, cultures were set at two stocking densities (1 g · L−1 and 4 g · L−1, fresh weight) with 15 water renewal rates (ranging from ≈4% h−1 to ≈1115% h−1) with a nitrate-N concentration of 47.82 ± 2.67 μM, creating nitrogen fluxes ranging from ≈2 μM · h−1 to ≈560 μM · h−1.