These findings suggest that the conditioned peripheral effects of cocaine can contribute significantly to cocaine-induced (but not stress-induced) GW3965 molecular weight cocaine craving,

and also suggest the cocaine cue as an important target for cue-exposure therapies for cocaine addiction.”
“Methamphetamine (METH) is a widely abused psychostimulant that is associated with neurotoxicity and neurocognitive impairments in adults. However, the effects of METH use on neurocognitive performance of adolescents are unclear.

Fifty-four adolescent METH users and 74 age-matched comparison subjects (ages 12 to 23 years) were evaluated with a battery of neuropsychological tests. The cognitive domains evaluated include psychomotor (Symbol Digit, Trail Making), executive function (Stroop Interference see more task, Wisconsin Card Sort task), fine-motor speed (Grooved Pegboard), memory (Digit span and Auditory Verbal Learning Task), as well as attention and working memory (California Computerized Assessment package).

METH users were slower on the Stroop Interference

task than the comparison subjects (F(1,114) = 4.33, p = 0.03). METH subjects also performed worse than controls on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III/Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV (WAIS/WISC) Matrices task (F(1,114) = 4.37, p = 0.04) and performed significantly worse on the Peg Board task than the comparison subjects for both the dominant (F(1,114) = 7.56, p = 0.01) and non-dominant (F(1,114) = 6.75, p = 0.01). Lastly, length of abstinence was associated with improved performance on the Peg Board test with the dominant had (r = -0.34), as well as the WAIS/WISC Forward Digit Selleck Silmitasertib Span task (r = 0.38)

METH use is associated with impaired executive functions in adolescent users.”
“Purpose: Cryptorchidism

has been associated with infertility. We hypothesize that a positive correlation exists between testicular histopathology at orchiopexy and future fertility potential in patients with cryptorchidism.

Materials and Methods: Patients with cryptorchidism who underwent orchiopexy with bilateral testis biopsies were followed into adulthood. Testis histology was stratified into groups based on total germ cells per tubule and adult dark spermatogonia per tubule. After age 18 years, patients underwent hormonal testing and semen analysis. Mean semen analysis parameters and hormone levels were compared among histopathology groups.

Results: A total of 91 patients with unilateral undescended testes and 19 with bilateral undescended testes had data for review. No significant differences in semen analysis parameters were seen among the germ cells per tubule groups. In unilateral undescended testis, sperm density and sperm count in the abnormal adult dark spermatogonia per tubule group remained within normal range but were significantly decreased (p = 0.005 and p = 0.028).

The method to produce these amyloid-like fibrils is expanded upon in this study. check details Data showed that the C-terminal end of the protein retains its -helical character even in the amyloid state, and that changing the pH of the

protein solution from 4 to 8 resulted in gels that resemble the -oligomeric form. These interim results provide the conditions for further elucidating the structure of these fibrils and their intermediate states.”
“Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a promising source of biomarkers in clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), which frequently presents as a first episode of multiple sclerosis (MS). Using the two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis (2-D DIGE), we compared CSF samples from patients with CIS that remained CIS (CIS-CIS, n = 8) over a follow-up time of 2 years and from patients with CIS that developed definite MIS of the relapsing-remitting subtype (CIS-RRMS, n = 8) over the same period. Protein spots that showed significant differences between patients and controls were selected for further analysis by MALDI-TOF

mass spectrometry. For validation of identified spots ELISA experiments were performed. We identified one protein that was upregulated in CIS-RRMS (serin peptidase inhibitor) and eight proteins (alpha-1-B-glycoprotein, Fetuin-A, apolipoprotein A4, haptoglobin, human Zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (ZAG), Retinol-binding protein, superoxid dismutase 1, transferrin) that were down-regulated in CIS-RRMS vs. CIS-CIS. 4SC-202 purchase For Fetuin-A, our findings could be confirmed Pritelivir ic50 by

ELISA. The pathophysiological role as well as clinical relevance of these candidate proteins in CIS remains to be further clarified by future studies. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Prion diseases are invariably fatal infectious diseases of the central nervous system. The prion protein has been identified as the underlying causative agent as PrP knockout mice (prnp0/0) are resistant to infection. This suggests that a significant reduction in the expression levels of PrPc should interrupt disease progression. Accomplishing this in vivo, upon presentation of symptoms, requires a mechanism that significantly reduces prnp mRNA levels while lacking potential side effects that may be cytotoxic or lethal to the host. Hybrid hammerhead ribozymes (HyHamRzs) include both a helicase recruitment signal and a tRNAVal promoter. HyHamRzs offer a means of highly specific and significant mRNA cleavage. In this study, data demonstrate increased activity granted to HamRzs by the addition of the helicase recruitment signal. Results show that three different HyHamRzs, targeting different locations along the full length prnp mRNA, reduced expression levels by greater than 95% relative to the control.

He reports no use of aspirin or nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Abdominal examination reveals epigastric tenderness. A serologic test for Helicobacter pylori is positive, and he receives a 10-day course

of triple therapy (omeprazole, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin). Six weeks later, he returns with the same symptoms. Selleckchem GSK2118436 How should his case be further evaluated and managed?”
“Derived from arachidonic acid, epoxyeicosatrienoic acids function as antihypertensive and antihypertrophic mediators in the cardiovascular system. Epoxyeicosatrienoic acids are generated by soluble epoxide hydrolase, an enzyme hydrolyzing the epoxide moiety of juvenile hormones in insects, and are endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors that induce vessel dilation for cardioprotection. Pharmacological inhibition and genetic ablation of soluble epoxide hydrolase increases the level of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. Recent findings suggest that the level of soluble epoxide hydrolase in the heart and endothelium

is upregulated by angiotensin II in vitro in cultured cardiomyocytes and vascular endothelial cells and in vivo in rodent models. Treatment with soluble epoxide hydrolase-selective inhibitors in angiotensin II-infused hypertensive rats increases the level of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids, with attendant decrease in systolic blood pressure. Shear stress, the physiological find more stimulation of vessel dilation, downregulates soluble epoxide hydrolase and hence increases epoxyeicosatrienoic acid level in endothelial cells. Because of the close association of the angiotensin II/soluble epoxide hydrolase/epoxyeicosatrienoic acid system and blood pressure regulation, pharmacological inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase would be a useful approach to prevent and treat angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy and hypertension, as well as vascular impairments.”
“The

Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI) guidelines recommend that serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentration of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) should be measured regularly and maintained within target ranges that are defined according to the stage of CKD (e.g., 150-300 pg/ml in patients with CKD stage 5). The quality www.selleck.cn/products/gsk3326595-epz015938.html of the PTH assay is of paramount importance, as it contributes to the therapeutic decision. Indeed, when the PTH concentration is above these target values, drugs that decrease PTH secretion, such as active vitamin D compounds or calcimimetic agents, may be given and the doses are then adapted according to the evolution of the PTH concentration. By contrast, if the PTH concentration is below the target range, any treatment that may decrease PTH secretion is stopped to avoid adynamic bone disease and associated extra-skeletal calcifications. The aim of this article is to discuss the main features and pitfalls related to PTH measurement in the setting of CKD.

In this learn more high-field (3.0 T) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we hypothesized that M1-4p is more important for initiation of motion, whereas M1-4a is important for execution of a given motion involving more complex sensoriomotor interaction. We investigated M1-4a and M1-4p activation associated with two representative motor tasks, namely, finger tapping (voluntary motion, VM) and passive finger movement accomplished by continuous pressure (passive motor, PM), and two representative sensory stimulations, namely, simple stimulation of flutter vibration

(simple sensory, SS), and complex stimulation by a row of pins moving either vertically or horizontally (complex sensory, CS). Both M1-4a and M1-4p were activated in both motor tasks, VM and PM. M1-4p was not activated by either of the two sensory tasks, selleck inhibitor whereas M1-4a was activated by CS but not by SS. Analysis of the center of gravities (COG) of the activated areas showed that VM and PM moved COG towards M1-4p and 3a. SS moved COG towards somatosensory cortex Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3b, whereas CS towards M1-4a. The result clearly showed that M1-4a represents the area of secondary motor execution, which actively participates in CS processing. NeuroReport

20:679-683 (C) 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health vertical bar Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.”
“Direct population sequencing and reverse hybridization (line probe assay [LiPA])-based methods are the most common methods for detecting hepatitis B virus (HBV) drug resistance mutations, although only mutations present in viral

quasispecies with a prevalence of >= 20% can be detected by sequencing, and only known mutations are detected by LiPA. Massively parallel ultradeep GW786034 pyrosequencing (UDPS; GS FLX platform) was used to analyze HBV quasispecies in reverse transcriptase (RT) and hepatitis B S antigen (HBsAg) from five drug-naive patients and eight drug-resistant patients. Eight primer pairs were used to obtain partially overlapping amplicons, covering the RT gene from codons 1 to 288 and the complete overlapping HBsAg sequence. A 1% mutation frequency was selected as the cutoff based on an error rate estimated on plasmid DNA. This technology enabled simultaneous analysis of between 2,852 and 18,016 clonally amplified fragments from each patient. The results indicate that UDPS has a relative sensitivity much higher than both direct sequencing and LiPA. In addition, the UDPS results are quantitative, allowing establishment of the relative frequency of both known mutations and novel substitutions. Some of the detected RT substitutions led to changes also in HBsAg. On the whole, genotype D presented a higher heterogeneity than genotype A.

The radiometal-labeled version, which shows lower normal tissue accumulation than these

recombinant antibodies, provides a promising and novel platform for antibody-based imaging agents. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify the morphologic characteristics and other risk factors that may predispose patients with mixed totally anomalous pulmonary venous connection to continuing high mortality after Selleckchem CB-5083 surgery.

Methods: Fifty-seven consecutive patients aged 15 days to 18 years (median, 6 months) underwent rechanneling of mixed totally anomalous pulmonary venous connection. Twenty-three patients had “”2+2″” pattern (I category), 29 had “”3+1″” pattern (II category), and 5 patients had pulmonary venous connections of different combinations (III category). Obstructive patterns involving one or more pulmonary veins were present in 19 (33.3%) patients.

Results: Etomoxir ic50 Operative and late mortality rates were

19.3% and 4.3%, respectively. At a mean follow-up of 63.26 +/- 58.47 months, actuarial survival was 86.9% +/- 0.07% in category I, 86.2% +/- 0.06% in category II, and 20.0% +/- 0.18% in category III (log-rank, P = .001), respectively. At their last follow-up, all survivors (n = 43) had a Ross clinical heart failure score of 0 to 2.

Conclusions: Patients with a “”2+2″” pattern of mixed totally anomalous pulmonary venous connection constitute the safe anatomic category for rechanneling, followed by the “”3+1″” variety. Cross-sectional echocardiography and/or computed tomographic angiography are mandatory to provide necessary diagnostic information and define the

anatomy. Patients aged 2 months or younger, obstructive totally anomalous pulmonary venous connection, and perioperative pulmonary hypertensive crises were significant risk factors for death by logistic regression analysis. The risk of death was 5.85 times higher (95% confidence interval: 1.46-35.68; P = .02) in patients with category III of mixed TAPVC. The see more precise technique adopted in an individual patient depends on the pattern of anatomic drainage, and an individualized surgical approach is recommended.”
“A construct for tagging neurospheres and monitoring cell transplantations was developed using a new technology for producing luminescent and radiolabeled probes that have identical structures. The HIV I -Tat basic domain derivatives NAcGRKKRRQRRR(SAACQ)G (SAACQ-1) and [NAeGRKKRRQRRR(Re(CO)(3)SAACQ)G](+) (ReSAACQ-1) were prepared in excellent yields using the single amino acid chelate-quinoline (SAACQ) ligand and its Re(I) complex and conventional automated peptide synthesis methods. The distribution of the luminescent Re probe, using epifluorescence microscopy, showed that it localized primarily in the cell nucleus with a significant degree of association on the nuclear envelope.

Extending prior work on intra-couple care, this study contrasts

frail cohabitors’ patterns of care receipt from a partner to that of frail spouses.

Methods. Using nationally representative panel data front the Health and Retirement Study (2000, 2002, 2004, and 2006), we estimate random effects cross-sectional times series models predicting frail Lazertinib in vivo cohabitors’ likelihood of receiving partner care compared with their married counterparts’. Conditional on the receipt of intra-couple care, we also examine differences in marital and nonmarital partners’ caregiving hours and caregiving involvement relative to other helpers.

Results. Net of sociodemographic, disability, and comorbidity factors, we find that cohabitors are less likely to receive partner care than married individuals. However, caregiving nonmarital partners provide as many hours of care as spouses while providing a substantially larger share of disabled respondents’ care than marital partners.

Discussion. Cohabitation and marriage have distinct implications

for older adults’ patterns of partner care receipt. This study adds weight to a growing body of research emphasizing the importance of accounting for older adults’ nontraditional union forms and of examining the ramifications SU5402 supplier of cohabitation for older adults’ well-being.”
“BACKGROUND: Single-session stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) treatment of vestibular schwannomas results in excellent tumor control. It is not Cyclopamine cost known whether functional outcomes can be improved by fractionating the treatment over multiple sessions.

OBJECTIVE: To examine tumor control and complication rates after multisession SRS.

METHODS: Three hundred eighty-three patients treated with SRS from 1999 to 2007 at Stanford University Medical Center were retrospectively reviewed. Ninety percent were treated with 18 Gy in 3 sessions, targeting a

median tumor volume of 1.1 cm(3) (range, 0.02-19.8 cm(3)).

RESULTS: During a median follow-up duration of 3.6 years (range, 1-10 years), 10 tumors required additional treatment, resulting in 3- and 5-year Kaplan-Meier tumor control rates of 99% and 96%, respectively. Five-year tumor control rate was 98% for tumors <3.4 cm(3). Neurofibromatosis type 2-associated tumors were associated with worse tumor control (P = .02). Of the 200 evaluable patients with pre-SRS serviceable hearing (Gardner-Robertson grade 1 and 2), the crude rate of serviceable hearing preservation was 76%. Smaller tumor volume was associated with hearing preservation (P = .001). There was no case of post-SRS facial weakness. Eight patients (2%) developed trigeminal dysfunction, half of which was transient.

CONCLUSION: Multisession SRS treatment of vestibular schwannomas results in an excellent rate of tumor control. The hearing, trigeminal nerve, and facial nerve function preservation rates reported here are promising.”
“Objectives.

To address a

possible role of ATF6 signaling in LCMV infection, we used cells deficient in site 2 protease (S2P), a metalloprotease required for the activation of ATF6. Cells deficient in S2P showed significantly lower levels of production of infectious virus during acute but not persistent infection, indicating a requirement for ATF6-mediated signaling for optimal virus multiplication. In summary, acute LCMV infection seems to selectively induce the ATF6-regulated branch of the UPR that is likely beneficial for virus replication and cell viability, but it avoids induction of PERK and IRE1, whose activation may be detrimental for virus and the host cell.”
“Since the membrane attack complex (MAC), an end product of the activated complement cascade, has been shown to play a role in neurodegeneration, we investigated to which extent MAC contributes to structural reorganization, neuronal cell buy DAPT death, and seizure development in two rat models for temporal lobe epilepsy. We used the electrically-induced status epilepticus (SE) model and the kindling model in C6-deficient rats (that are unable to form MAC) and wild-type (WT) PVG/c rats. Structural reorganization was investigated using hilar cell counts and mossy fiber sprouting. Seizure development was monitored

using electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings. 4 weeks after electrically stimulated SE, hilar cell counts in C6-deficient and WT post-SE rats were significantly decreased compared to an

unstimulated control group, but not different between C6-deficient and WT post-SE. Since seizure selleck chemicals development was unexpectedly absent in most post-SE rats we assessed epileptogenesis using the kindling rate as main parameter. Kindling development was slightly delayed in C6-deficient rats compared to WT rats. SCH772984 price The lack of effect of C6 deficiency on hilar cell death and mossy fiber sprouting after electrically-induced SE or kindling argues against a role of the terminal complement complex in neuronal cell death induced by SE or seizures. A small but significant delay of kindling epileptogenesis suggests a subtle role of MAC in seizure spread. Whether complement components upstream of MAC play a crucial role in neuronal death and/or epileptogenesis needs to be further investigated. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) is implicated in severe, usually secondary, dengue virus (DV) infections. Preexisting heterotypic antibodies, via their Fc-gamma receptor (Fc gamma R) interactions, may increase disease severity through enhanced target cell infection. Greater numbers of infected target cells may contribute to higher viremia and excess cytokine levels often observed in severe disease. Monocytes, macrophages, and immature and mature dendritic cells (DC) are considered major cellular targets of DV.

Significance and Impact of the Study:

It is a novel report regarding the use of buy AZD2281 the S1 protein of TGEV to generate specific mAbs. Their utility and the established immunoassays contribute to the surveillance of TGE coronavirus.”
“Aims:

As there is no knowledge of the influence of abiotic factors on the two new ochratoxin A (OTA)-producing species Aspergillus sclerotioniger and Aspergillus lacticoffeatus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of temperature and incubation time on growth and OTA

production by these species on culture media.

Methods and Results:

The study was carried out on yeast extract sucrose agar (YES) and Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA) incubated at ten different temperatures from 5 to 50 degrees C (at 5 degrees C intervals). find more Growth assessment and OTA production were determined after 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 days of incubation at each temperature. Aspergillus sclerotioniger grew from 10 to 35 degrees C; OTA was detected from 10 to 35 degrees C and the highest concentration was achieved at 15 degrees C in CYA. Aspergillus lacticoffeatus grew from 10 to 45 degrees C; OTA was detected from 15 to 45 degrees C, and the maximum concentration was produced after 5 days at 25 degrees

C in YES.

Conclusions:

The studied species can produce OTA over a wide range of temperatures and significant amounts can be produced in only 5 days.

Significance and Impact of the Study:

This is the first report on the influence of ecophysiological factors on these two ochratoxigenic species. The pattern of effects of temperature on growth and OTA production by A. sclerotioniger and A. lacticoffeatus was similar to those reported for the closely related species Aspergillus carbonarius and Aspergillus niger, respectively. The two new OTA-producing species have both been isolated from coffee beans, and the closely related ochratoxigenic species of section Nigri, A. carbonarius and A. niger are important sources of OTA in this substrate.”
“Aims:

To see more differentiate pathogenic and nonpathogenic Edwardsiella tarda strains based on the detection of type III secretion system (T3SS)

gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Methods and Results:

Primers were designed to amplify Edw. tarda T3SS component gene esaV, catalase gene katB, haemolysin gene hlyA and 16S rRNA gene as an internal positive control. Genomic DNAs were extracted using a commercial isolation kit from 36 Edw. tarda strains consisting of 18 pathogenic and 18 nonpathogenic strains, and 50 ng of each DNA was used as the template for PCR amplification. PCR was performed with a thermocycler (TaKaRa TP600) in a 25-mu l volume. Products of esaV were detected in all pathogenic strains, but not in nonpathogenic strains; katB was detected in all pathogenic strains and one of nonpathogenic strains; hlyA was not detected in any strains.

We Rigosertib supplier recently reported that particulate matter (PM) exposure negatively contributed to the exercise-induced increase in human serum BDNF concentration. Furthermore, PM exposure is associated with neuroinflammation and cognitive decline. The aim

of this study was to investigate the effect of exposure to ultrafine particles (UFP) during a single bout of forced exercise on the expression of inflammatory (IL1 alpha, IL1 beta, TNF, IL6, NOS2, NOS3) and oxidative stress (NFE2L2)-related genes, as well as BDNF in the brain of rats. Four groups (n = 6/group) of Wistar rats were exposed for 90 min to one of the following exposure regimes: UFP + exercise, UFP + rest, ambient air + exercise, ambient air + rest (control). Hippocampus,

olfactory bulb and prefrontal cortex were collected 24 h after exposure. Gene expression changes were analyzed with real-time PCR. In the condition ambient air + exercise, hippocampal expression of BDNF and NFE2L2 was up-regulated, while the expression of IL1 alpha and NOS3 in the prefrontal cortex and IL1 ABT-737 alpha in the olfactory bulb was down-regulated compared to the control. In contrast, gene expression in the condition UFP + exercise did not differ from the control. In the condition UFP + rest, hippocampal expression of NFE2L2 was down-regulated and there was a trend toward down-regulation of BDNF expression compared to the control. This study shows a negative effect of UFP exposure on the exercise-induced up-regulation of BDNF gene expression in the hippocampus of rats. (c) 2012 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a major worldwide respiratory pathogen that causes acute upper and lower respiratory learn more tract disease. The mechanism by which this virus recognizes and gains access to its target cell is still largely unknown. In this study, we addressed the initial steps in virus binding and infection and found that the first binding partner for HMPV

is heparan sulfate (HS). While wild-type CHO-K1 cells are permissive to HMPV infection, mutant cell lines lacking the ability to synthesize glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), specifically, heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), were resistant to binding and infection by HMPV. The permissiveness to HMPV infection was also abolished when CHO-K1 cells were treated with heparinases. Importantly, using recombinant HMPV lacking both the G and small hydrophobic (SH) proteins, we report that this first virus-cell binding interaction is driven primarily by the fusion protein (HMPV F) and that this interaction is needed to establish a productive infection. Finally, HMPV binding to cells did not require beta 1 integrin expression, and RGD-mediated interactions were not essential in promoting HMPV F-mediated cell-to-cell membrane fusion.

Intact brainstem preparations with N. X and N. IX attached were dissected from E13-E16 rat embryos, and electrical responses evoked by N. X/N. IX stimulation were optically recorded from many loci of the stained preparations. We analyzed optical waveforms and separated fast and slow optical signals corresponding to the antidromic/orthodromic action potentials and the excitatory postsynaptic Angiogenesis inhibitor potentials (EPSPs), respectively. We constructed contour line maps

of signal amplitudes and identified motor and sensory nuclei of N. X and N. IX. In the N. X-related motor nucleus (the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve: DMNV), the fast signals were distributed in multiple-peak patterns, suggesting that the neurons and/or their activity are selleck screening library not distributed uniformly within the motor nuclei at early developmental stages. In the sensory nucleus (the nucleus of the tractus solitarius: NTS), the EPSPs were first detected from E15 in normal physiological solution for both N. X and N. IX. The N. IX-related NTS partially overlapped with the N. X-related

NTS, but the peak locations were different between these two nerves. The results obtained in this study suggest that functional organization of the N. X- and N. IX-related nuclei changes dynamically with development in the embryonic rat brainstem. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Human neural progenitor cells differentiated from human embryonic stem cells offer a potential cell source for studying neurodegenerative diseases and for drug screening assays. Previously, we demonstrated that human neural progenitors could be maintained in a proliferative state with the addition of leukemia inhibitory factor and basic fibroblast growth factor. Here we demonstrate that 96 h after removal of basic fibroblast growth factor the neural progenitor cell LDK378 manufacturer culture was significantly altered and cell replication halted. Fourteen days after the removal of basic fibroblast

growth factor, most cells expressed microtubule-associated protein 2 and TUJ1, markers characterizing a post-mitotic neuronal phenotype as well as neural developmental markers Cdh2 and Gbx2. Real-time PCR was performed to determine the ionotropic receptor subunit expression profile. Differentiated neural progenitors express subunits of glutamatergic, GABAergic, nicotinic, purinergic and transient receptor potential receptors. In addition, sodium and calcium channel subunits were also expressed. Functionally, virtually all the hNP cells tested under whole-cell voltage clamp exhibited delayed rectifier potassium channel currents and some differentiated cells exhibited tetrodotoxin-sensitive, voltage-dependent sodium channel current. Action potentials could also be elicited by currents injection under whole-cell current clamp in a minority of cells.