1B, mean = 5200). Variability in the level

of infection obtained Libraries between individual animals may have affected the capacity of the vaccine trial described here to achieve statistical significance between some of the different treatment groups. In the study undertaken by Flisser et al. [4] pigs were given eggs isolated from gravid T. solium segments such that individual animals received directly comparable challenge infections. In the trial of TSOL45-1A where statistically significant protection was achieved [4] the twelve control animals harboured between 6 and 127 cysts, representing a range varying by a factor of 21 from lowest to highest. In Peru where the trial described here was undertaken, greatest success has been achieved in experimental JQ1 manufacturer infections in pigs by giving whole gravid proglottids rather than isolated eggs, however a disadvantage of the method is the necessity to use different adult worms GDC-0199 concentration to supply the proglottids and individual animals also receiving different proglottids

[28]. In the experiment described here, this led to a variation in the levels of infection in controls by a factor of 174 between the lowest and highest values (22–3831 cysts). In this case, it is difficult to interpret whether the TSOL45-1A vaccinated animals that had 25 and 63 cysts were either non-protected or >98% protected depending on whether they received the lower or higher infective dose delivered to the control animals. Nevertheless TSOL16 appeared to be a more effective immunogen than TSOL45-1A in this experiment, with TSOL16-vaccinated animals being both statistically significantly protected in comparison to controls as well as having statistically significant fewer cysts than the TSOL45-1A vaccinates (P < 0.05). The oncosphere antigens of cestode parasites are typically problematic also to express in E. coli [19], [29] and [30] and GST or MBP fusion proteins have been used as immunogens because these have advantages in regard to expression level and solubility compared to the non-fused or HIS-tagged antigens. Here we used

a vaccination strategy incorporating both GST and MBP fusion proteins of the same antigen in an attempt to boost immune responses to the parasite-derived portion of the recombinant antigens. The first two immunizations given to the pigs each contained the oncosphere antigens fused to GST. The third immunizations each contained the antigens fused to MBP, the aim being to boost immune responses to the parasite-encoded portions of TSOL16, TSOL45-1A or TSOL45-1B rather than to the GST fusion partner. Previous studies have shown that a substantial portion of the antibody response in pigs [17] and sheep [31] and [32] is raised against the highly immunogenic GST fusion partner. Responses to both TSOL16 and TSOL45-1A were substantially greater after the third immunization compared with responses after the second ( Fig. 1).

While MMPs are required for normal tissue homeostasis, there is also evidence that they play a role in the pathogenesis

of a range of inflammatory-fibrotic buy Pazopanib diseases [84], [85] and [86], disrupting the basement membrane and aiding the recruitment of inflammatory cells [87]. MMPs have wide-ranging effects on inflammatory and immune processes, such as modulating chemokine activity and activation of TGFβ, IL-1β and TNF [88]. They are known to be important in a number of ocular surface diseases, and inhibition of MMP activity has been shown to reduce conjunctival scarring after glaucoma surgery [89]. MMP9 is part of the neutrophil lysosome, and mediates epithelial dissolution through degradation of type IV collagen [82]. Children with active trachoma have increased amounts of conjunctival MMP9 (determined by immunohistochemistry, zymography and gene expression analysis) [46] and [90]. Scarring trachoma is associated with increased expression of MMP9 and a coding SNP that is adjacent to the active binding site of the MMP9 enzyme [46], [68] and [91], and with differential expression of MMPs 7, 9, 10 and 12 and tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)-1; recurrence of trichiasis after surgery is associated with

an altered MMP1/TIMP1 transcript ratio [55], [67], [68] and [92]. Scar tissue in trachoma probably originates from activated fibroblasts which are stimulated to produce collagen by profibrogenic www.selleckchem.com/products/cobimetinib-gdc-0973-rg7420.html Libraries mediators (TGF-β, PDGF, CTGF and bFGF) [50], [93] and [94]. Chemokines have also been shown to act as fibrogenic mediators, in particular, the CC- and CXC-chemokine families, and various members of these families have been associated with scarring, including the pro-fibrogenic Idoxuridine CCL18 [50], [55], [69] and [87]. Since the pathology of Ct infection is similar in the eye and genital tract [4] and [16], and both are part of the common mucosal immune

system, it is likely that similar processes lead to resolution of infection and/or the development of scarring sequelae at each site. The few studies that have been conducted on the immunological correlates of protective immunity and immunopathology in human genital Ct infection have reached broadly similar conclusions to those of studies in the eye [10], [95], [96] and [97]. Local, endocervical IgA antibodies appear to be protective [95], and stronger Th-1 type cell-mediated immune responses to Ct antigens are seen in the peripheral blood of subjects who do not have sequelae [96] and [97]. An important difference between ocular and genital infection is that in the eye, the damaging sequelae occur at the site of the initial infection, the conjunctival epithelium. By contrast, in the female genital tract the major sequelae develop in the fallopian tubes and not at the cervix, which is the site of inoculation. Impairment of immunological barriers to ascending infection may explain the association between HIV infection and chlamydial PID [98]; no association has been reported between HIV and trachoma.

inpes.sante.fr). Le tabagisme de l’entourage fait partie intégrante de l’évaluation. L’existence d’autres addictions Quizartinib manufacturer devra être recherchée, telles que l’alcool (questionnaire CAGE-DETA) et le Libraries cannabis (questionnaire CA) [5]. Un accompagnement psychologique et motivationnel est la base de la prise en charge du patient lors de consultations spécifiquement consacrées à l’arrêt du tabagisme. Le patient doit recevoir l’information la plus complète possible

sur les méthodes de sevrage et, en cas de dépendance au tabac, sur les traitements médicamenteux. Si le niveau de dépendance le justifie, il est recommandé de prescrire les substituts nicotiniques en première intention avec adaptation de la posologie en fonction des symptômes [1] and [5]. La combinaison d’un timbre transdermique avec une forme d’administration rapide (gomme à mâcher, comprimés, inhaleur, spray buccal) est plus efficace qu’une seule

forme d’administration. Seuls ces médicaments sont remboursés sur la base d’un forfait de 50 €, porté à 150 € pour les patients bénéficiaires de la www.selleckchem.com/products/ly2157299.html CMU et les femmes enceintes. La HAS, et tout récemment l’OMS (rapport août 2014), considèrent que l’efficacité et l’innocuité de la cigarette électronique n’ont pas été suffisamment documentées à ce jour pour la recommander comme outil d’aide à l’arrêt du tabac [6]. Toutefois, du fait de sa toxicité beaucoup moins forte qu’une cigarette, son utilisation ne doit pas être découragée chez un fumeur qui souhaite arrêter mais devrait

s’intégrer dans une stratégie personnalisée et adaptée de sevrage en accord avec le médecin traitant. Les utilisateurs Thymidine kinase de la cigarette électronique sont principalement des candidats à l’arrêt ou à la réduction des risques liés au tabagisme, même si par ailleurs des motifs économiques sont aussi invoqués [13]. Une étude récente montre que la cigarette électronique, avec ou sans nicotine, conduit à des résultats similaires au timbre nicotinique dans le sevrage tabagique mais pour autant la place de la cigarette électronique reste à préciser [14]. De plus, l’impact de la cigarette électronique sur le processus inflammatoire impliqué dans l’atteinte des voies aériennes dans la BPCO reste à évaluer. La varénicline, agoniste partiel des récepteurs nicotiniques α4β2, peut être proposée en deuxième intention en cas d’échec du sevrage à l’aide des substituts nicotiniques [1] and [5]. Le traitement initial dure 12 semaines avec une extension possible de 12 semaines supplémentaires, notamment si le sevrage est obtenu à la fin de la période initiale. Le patient et son entourage devront être informés des risques fréquents, en particulier de nausées, de rhinopharyngite et d’insomnies, et plus rarement d’agressivité, de troubles dépressifs, voire d’idées suicidaires. Ces modifications du comportement et de l’humeur doivent conduire à l’arrêt du traitement [5] and [15].

All this makes most of salmonids rearing areas endemic for IPNV and this is probably the reason why 30–40% of the salmonid hatcheries have outbreaks every year [7]. The importance of this disease is limiting the salmonid industry, therefore the development of effective vaccines is still a priority. Experimental IPNV vaccines consisting of recombinant IPNV VP2 protein produced by bacteria, yeast or fish and mammalian cells lines elicit adaptive immune responses, as demonstrated by anti-VP2 antibodies and decrease of viral load in rainbow trout or Atlantic salmon specimens

[8], [9] and [10]. On the contrary, IPNV virus-like particles (VLPs) obtained by the long segment A ORF expression in a baculovirus insect/larvae Panobinostat in vivo system gave non-significant protection in trout, after immersion vaccination, but significant in Atlantic salmon, vaccinated by intraperitoneally selleck products injection [11]. Although some experimental

design problems in these experiments may be responsible for the low protection levels, other experimental approaches are necessary to improve the actual protection levels achieved by IPNV vaccines. Although the intraperitoneal vaccination route was quite effective in laboratory trials, the field results are quite unpredictable due to potential viral persistence by natural infections and the great difficulty to establish proper challenge models for IPNV [12] and [13]. Moreover, as the infection is mainly at very young stages the intraperitoneal vaccination is complicated and other vaccination routes are preferred. Focusing on commercial IPNV vaccines, injectable vaccines have demonstrated different protection levels in field Modulators studies [12] and [13] whilst an oral IPNV vaccine based on yeast-produced VP2 and VP3 recombinant proteins is licensed in Chile (AquaVac*

IPN Oral; Intervet) with protection levels up to 86%. However, further development of IPNV effective vaccines is needed to control the outbreaks that still appear every year. In the last decade, DNA vaccines have raised as one of the most promising and potent fish vaccines, mainly for viral pathogens. Most of the studies have focused on DNA vaccines directed against rhabdoviruses coding for their glycoprotein, old though other vaccines for different viruses and even bacteria or parasites have been generated and tested [14], [15] and [16]. In general, a single dose may provide vaccinated fish with a powerful innate immune response in the first days followed by an adaptive immune response and disease resistance up, at least, 2 years. Due to its powerful and long-lasting protection, the first DNA vaccine has been licensed in 2005 against the infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in Canada (Appex-IHN, Aqua Health Ltd.).

2D gel spots were transferred to protein LoBind tubes (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany) and destained with 50% acetonitrile in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate for 1 h. In-gel tryptic digestion and peptide extraction were carried out manually as described [12]. For matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization—time of flight (MALDI-TOF) MS analysis, digests were desalted and concentrated using a ZipTip C18 (Millipore) following the manufacturer’s instructions [12] and mixed with α-cyano-hydroxy-cinnamic acid (10 mg/mL in 50% acetonitrile/0.1% trifluoroacetic acid) prior to spotting onto a MALDI target (Bruker Daltonics, Coventry, UK). An Autoflex II

MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometer (Bruker Daltonics), equipped with FlexControl software, was used for acquisition of mass spectra. A total of 700 laser shots per sample were acquired by summing sets of 50 laser shots. Apoptosis inhibitor MS/MS spectra were acquired by application of LIFT™-TOF technology on the most intense parent ions. A Surveyor LC system (Thermo inhibitors Electron), directly interfaced with an ion trap mass spectrometer (LCQ Deca

XP) equipped with an electro-spray ionization (ESI) source (Thermo Electron), was also used for capillary LC–MS/MS analysis of some protein digests [12]. MS scans were performed over a m/z range of 400–2000 and MS/MS scans of the most intense peaks were carried out in a data-dependent Hedgehog antagonist acquisition manner. For MALDI, a list of peptide or fragment ion masses was generated using FlexAnalysis software and imported with BioTools (Bruker Daltonics) to a web-based Mascot search engine (Matrix Science, London, UK) for protein identification via peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) and MS/MS sequencing using the SwissProt and NCBInr N. meningitidis entries. For ESI-MS/MS, sequence files were created and searched using the Sequest algorithm in Bioworks v.3.1 software (Thermo Electron) and the N. meningitidis MC58 entries (UniProtKB/SwissProt release 56.4). A positive protein identification Resminostat was assigned when at least two peptides passed the single threshold filter by Xcorr (1.50, 2.00, 2.50) versus charge state (±1, 2, 3), respectively. Other search parameters included cysteine carbamidomethylation as a fixed

modification; methionine oxidation as a variable modification; peptide and MS/MS mass tolerance set out at 100 ppm for MALDI and 0.5 and 0.6 Da for ESI-MS and -MS/MS, respectively. Peptide charges of +1 for MALDI and +1, +2, +3 for ion trap were selected, and one trypsin miss-cleavage was allowed. Differences in antibody levels were determined with Student’s t-test or Mann–Whitney rank sum test using a SigmaStat 3.1 program (Systat Software, Chicago, USA). p-Values <0.05 were considered significant. Correlations were assessed by the Spearman rank order correlation test or Pearson product moment correlation test. For DIGE analysis, Student’s t-test was applied to identify protein spots with significant differences in fold changes between the two compared groups.

, 2011). We calculated the relative risk and efficacy of the N95 arms using medical mask group as the reference category, and also the efficacy of N95 and medical mask group using control as the reference category. We fitted a multiinhibitors variable log binomial model, using generalized BKM120 solubility dmso estimating equation (GEE) to account for clustering by hospital, to estimate relative risk (RR) after adjusting for potential confounders. In the initial model, we included all the variables along with the main exposure variable

(randomization arm) that were significant (p < 0.25) in the univariable analysis. A backward elimination method was used to remove the variables that did not have any confounding effect, that is, could not make meaningful change (± 10%) in the RR of the N95 arms (Kleinbaum et al., 2007, Kleinbaum et al., 2010 and Vittinghoff et al., 2012). In the multivariable analysis we estimated RR for N95 and medical mask arms compared to the control arm. A total of 1441 nurses and doctors in 15 hospitals were recruited into the intervention arms, and 481 nurses and doctors in 9 hospitals were recruited into the control group (Fig. 1). The distribution of socio-demographic

variables was generally similar between arms, as previously reported (MacIntyre et al., 2011). Fig. 2 illustrates the rates of bacterial detection in symptomatic HCWs by trial arm, and shows increasing rates with decreasing level of respiratory Selleckchem FRAX597 protection. Table 1 shows bacterial and viral infections, as well as co-infections or co-colonization with multiple

pathogens, including co-infection with bacteria and virus. The rates of bacterial detection were lower for N95 respirators compared to MM (2.8% and 5.3% respectively), and was highest (7.5%) among the controls. By intention to treat analysis, N95 respirators were significantly more protective than MM against the laboratory-confirmed presence of bacteria, with an efficacy of 46% against medical masks and 62% against control. MMs had no significant efficacy against any outcome compared to control (Table 1). Resminostat Rates of all types of co-infection were significantly lower in the N95 group. N95 (but not MM) demonstrated efficacy against multiple bacterial pathogen colonization as well as co-infection with a virus and bacteria, and against dual virus infection (Table 1). There were no dual virus infections in controls (0/481), 2/949 in the N95 group and 5/492 in MM group. The MM arm had a higher rate of dual virus infection than controls, but the difference between MM and control did not reach statistical significance. The most common bacteria identified was S. pneumoniae; 2.

, 2009). ASEL and ASER are functionally asymmetric (Hobert et al., 2002). ASEL is activated by a rise in the concentration of NaCl, whereas ASER is activated by a drop (Suzuki et al., 2008). For NaCl responses, activation of ASEL inhibits animals from reversing, whereas activation of ASER increases reversal likelihood (Suzuki selleck et al., 2008). We imaged ASEL and ASER Ca2+ responses to CO2, using animals expressing the Ca2+ sensor YC2.12 in ASE from a pflp-6::YC2.12 transgene ( Suzuki et al., 2008). Both ASEL and ASER were activated by 1%, 3%, and 5% CO2 ( Figures 4A–4E), although

the responses of ASEL were generally ∼2-fold larger than those of ASER ( Figure 4E). ASE responses to CO2 were slow, taking around 2 min for Ca2+ levels to peak ( Figure 4F). Sustained elevated CO2 led to sustained increases in Ca2+ ( Figure 4F). As for AFD and BAG, ASE neurons appeared to be intrinsically CO2 sensitive because Ca2+ responses were intact in unc-13 mutants ( Figures 4G and S1D). In summary, ASEL and ASER both respond to CO2 by a slow rise in Ca2+ that persists while CO2 is high and returns to baseline when

CO2 returns to baseline. We examined whether the AQR, PQR, selleck chemicals llc and URX O2-sensing neurons (Persson et al., 2009 and Zimmer et al., 2009) respond to CO2 because our tax-2 rescue data indicated that these neurons contribute, albeit weakly, to CO2 avoidance. Average Ca2+ traces indicated that unlike AFD, BAG, and ASE, none of these neurons respond reliably to CO2 ( Figures S2A–S2D). Sitaxentan URX most consistently showed CO2-evoked activity, and this was retained in unc-13 mutants ( Figures S2A, S2E, and S2F). AQR and PQR occasionally showed a Ca2+ rise associated with an increase in CO2 but also showed apparent spontaneous activity that lay out of synchrony with the CO2 stimulus ( Figures S2B–S2D). The response of PQR to a 0%-3%-0%-3% CO2 stimulus was dwarfed by its response to a 21%-11%-21%-11% O2 stimulus ( Figure S2C). Having identified three C. elegans neuron classes that responded strongly to CO2 and a further three that responded weakly to CO2, we considered the possibility

that all sensory neurons show some CO2 responsiveness. Therefore, we imaged Ca2+ responses to CO2 in the ASH neurons that respond to various aversive stimuli ( Hilliard et al., 2005). ASH showed no response to 3% CO2 ( Figure 4H). This suggests that AFD, BAG, and ASE are functionally specialized as CO2 sensors. Our tax-2 rescue data suggested that CO2 sensing in BAG and AFD neurons involves cGMP signaling. To examine this further we imaged BAG responses to CO2 in tax-2(p694) and tax-4(null) mutants. Both mutations completely abolished CO2-evoked Ca2+ responses in BAG ( Figures 5A and 5C). This suggests that BAG CO2 sensory transduction is mediated by TAX-2/TAX-4 cGMP-gated channels and by extension, upstream guanylate cyclases (gcy). The only gcy genes known to be expressed in BAG are the atypical soluble guanylate cyclases gcy-31 and gcy-33 ( Yu et al., 1997, Zimmer et al.

For deletion mutations obtained from the C. elegans gene knockout consortium (ok, gk mutations) or the Japan National Bioresource Project (tm mutations), we backcrossed the mutant at least two times to N2 Dinaciclib molecular weight wild-type. For selected “hit” genes,

we retested the mutant after a second round of outcrossing and found consistent effects on regrowth. Deletions were genotyped by PCR; primer sequences are available on request. Transgenes were generated by standard procedures (see Supplemental Experimental Procedures). We chose a set of 654 genes based on the following criteria: (1) recognizable C. elegans, human similarity, as assessed by “best BLAST score” in Wormbase; (2) viable mutant strain; (3) known structural or functional category (e.g., kinase, channel); (4) expression in neurons (Wormbase). Some genes were prioritized based on RNAi screens for synaptic function ( Sieburth et al., 2005) or axonal guidance ( Schmitz et al., 2007). A few genes were selected based on expression in touch neurons ( Zhang et al., 2002). We performed laser axotomy essentially as described (Wu et al., 2007). To immobilize worms for EBP-2::GFP imaging without anesthetics, we used 12.5% agarose pads and a suspension of 0.1 μm diameter polystyrene beads (Polysciences) under the coverslip (C. Fang-Yen, personal communication). For live imaging of EBP-2::GFP, we collected

200 frames of 114 msec exposure each every 230 msec using the spinning disk confocal and generated kymographs using Metamorph Calpain (Molecular Devices) from a 40 μm ROI on the PLM axon

proximal to the cut site. Selleckchem MK8776 To apply taxol to regrowing axons in vivo, we grew animals on NGM agar plates containing 5 μM taxol (Sigma) for 24 hr prior to axotomy. One hour before axotomy, we injected 2–5 nl of 50 μM taxol in M9 buffer into the body cavity using standard injection protocols, and then recovered the animals on taxol-containing plates for 30 min. We axotomized PLM using our standard protocol except with 50 μM taxol in solutions. Control animals were injected with M9 buffer and cultured without taxol. Animals injected with buffer or taxol were healthy and grew at normal rates. The distribution of total regrowth length of axons in wild-type and controls passed standard tests of normality. In preliminary analysis, we used the Student’s t test or the Mann-Whitney test. Among 650 such two-way comparisons, 33 are expected to be significant at the 0.05 level by chance. Most genes discussed here displayed effects significant at the 0.01 level (red bars in bar charts of regrowth); we also discuss some genes that gave repeatable results at the 0.05 level (orange bars). To compare regrowth between experiments with different control means, we normalized each experimental data point by dividing it by its control mean. To correct for multiple comparisons, we used two approaches.

Encoding trials were composed of a central Dabrafenib nmr red fixation (500 ms) followed by the presentation of a word-image pair for 4,500 ms, followed by a central black fixation for 500 ms. For the remaining 8.5 s in each trial, participants completed an active baseline task (see Stark and Squire, 2001). In this task, participants made odd/even judgments on a series of centrally presented single digit numbers ranging from 1 to 9 that were randomly generated on a subject-specific basis. Each

number was presented for a maximum of 2 s or until the subject made a response. Once a response was registered, or 2 s elapsed, a black fixation cross was presented for 250 ms prior to the appearance of the next digit. The final 1–3 s of each trial were composed of a black fixation cross, depending on the timing of the subject’s prior responses. At encoding, regardless of trial type, participants were instructed to attempt to form an association between the word and image presented on the screen and to rate how well they could accomplish this task using a three-way button press. The right index finger was used to IAP inhibitor indicate “poor,” the middle finger to indicate “moderate,” and the ring finger to indicate “well.” This task was completed on all trials in each encoding block as well as on all trials

in the restudy phase. For the odd/even task, participants were instructed to use the right index finger to indicate “odd” and the middle finger to indicate “even.” The keyboard was used to record responses in all tasks performed outside the MRI. In the either MRI, an MRI-compatible button box was used to record responses. Finger-response mappings were held constant regardless of whether the task was performed inside or outside

of the MRI. In the image blocks of the localizer task, individual images were presented for 500 ms with an interstimulus interval of 300 ms. In each image miniblock, 20 trials of a given category were presented in a row. The fixation only miniblocks each lasted 16 s each. Participants were instructed to keep their eyes open and respond with a key under the index finger anytime an image repeated immediately following its initial presentation. At test, all stimuli were presented centrally. Test trials were composed of a 500 ms red fixation cross followed by a word for 12 s or until a response was registered. A final 200 ms black fixation cross followed the word presentation. Participants were instructed to evaluate their memory for the cue word and respond using a four-way response. The response options were old with scene, old with object, old unsure of pairing, and new. Participants were instructed to only use the old pair-specific responses when they were able to recollect the associated image.

These three goals were the focus of the hierarchical model of achievement motivation.8 The trichotomous model was then expanded with bifurcation of the mastery goal into the mastery approach and mastery avoidance goals.7, 34, 35 and 36 With this 2 × 2 achievement goal framework, competence based on the mastery-approach goal is defined by a focus on task-based attainment such as improving upon one’s past personal record in a 100-m dash, whereas competence based Selleck AG14699 on the mastery-avoidance goal is defined by a focus on avoiding a worsening of task-based attainment such avoiding not improving upon one’s personal record in the 100-m dash. From the performance goal perspective,

the performance-approach goal defines competence based on normative achievements such as the star running back on a football team focusing on rushing for more yards than the opponent’s star running back, whereas the performance-avoidance goal defines competence based on avoiding displays of normative incompetence such as not rushing for more yards than the opponent’s star running back. The aim of the present research was to clarify the approach-avoidance achievement Vorinostat mw goal and sport performance literature by conducting a meta-analytic

review of Elliot defined approach-avoidance goals and performance studies to determine the impact of each goal as well as the performance goal contrast on performance. With regards to hypotheses, historically only the performance goals have been hypothesized to impact or be related to performance standards. But, recently Huang11 in an extremely comprehensive meta-analysis Ketanserin of the dichotomous, trichotomous, and 2 × 2 achievement goal frameworks found that the mastery and performance approach goals were nearly equal in effect size magnitude and direction to the academic performance (means r = 0.10 and 0.13, respectively for the mastery and performance approach goals and academic achievement). Also of interest were the low albeit statistically significant magnitudes of these mean correlations

as well as the nearly identical mean correlations with the avoidance goals and academic achievement (means r = −0.11 and −0.13 for the mastery and performance avoidance goals, respectively). Last, the notion that the performance goal contrast was a better predictor of performance has emerged in the sport psychology literature. 3, 19 and 28 In addition, in the exercise psychology domain, Lochbaum and colleagues 37 demonstrated that both the performance and mastery goal contrasts were significantly different along a continuum of exercise participation stages in a theoretically coherent pattern with the positive contrast scores greater in the longer adhering exercise stages compared to the less adhering and non-exercising stages.